<strong>ANGEL</strong> (<span class="hebrew">מַלְאָכְ</span>, <span class="gknumber">H4855</span>; [[LXX]] and New Testament, <span class="greek">ἄγγελος</span>, <span class="gknumber">G34</span>, <em>messenger</em>).<br /><br />

<h2>Introduction</h2>

A supernatural, heavenly being, a little higher in [[dignity]] than [[man]]. Angels are created beings (<bibleref ref="Ps.148.2-Ps.148.5">Ps.148.2-Ps.148.5</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Col.1.16">Col.1.16</bibleref>). Scripture does not tell us the time of their creation, but it was certainly before the [[creation of man]] (<bibleref ref="Job.38.7">Job.38.7</bibleref>). They are described as “spirits” (<bibleref ref="Hebrew1.14">Hebrew1.14</bibleref>). Although without a bodily organism, they have often revealed themselves in bodily form to man. Jesus said that they do not marry and do not die (<bibleref ref="Luke.20.34-Luke.20.36">Luke.20.34-Luke.20.36</bibleref>). They therefore constitute a company, not a [[race]] developed from one original pair. Scripture describes them as personal beings, not mere personifications of abstract good and evil.<br /><br />

<hr />

Angels were created holy (<bibleref ref="Gen.1.31">Gen.1.31</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Jude.1.6">Jude.1.6</bibleref>), but after a period of [[probation]] some fell from their state of [[innocence]] (<bibleref ref="2Pet.2.4">2Pet.2.4</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Jude.1.6">Jude.1.6</bibleref>). Scripture is silent regarding the time and cause of their fall, but it is clear that it occurred before the fall of man (for [[Satan]] deceived [[Eve]] in the [[Garden of Eden]]) and that it was due to a deliberate, self-determined rebellion against God. As a result these angels lost their original holiness, became corrupt, and were confirmed in evil. Some were “sent...to hell,” where they are held in chains until the <span class="auto-link">[[Day of Judgment]]</span> (<bibleref ref="2Pet.2.4">2Pet.2.4</bibleref>); others were left free, and they oppose the work of God.

<hr />

<hr />

Angels had a large place in the life and ministry of [[Christ]]. At his birth they made their appearance to [[Mary]], [[Joseph]], and the [[shepherds]]. After the wilderness temptation of Christ they ministered to him (<bibleref ref="Matt.4.11">Matt.4.11</bibleref>); an angel strengthened him in the Garden (<bibleref ref="Luke.22.43">Luke.22.43</bibleref>); an angel rolled away the stone from the tomb (<bibleref ref="Matt.28.2-Matt.28.7">Matt.28.2-Matt.28.7</bibleref>); and angels were with him at the Ascension (<bibleref ref="Acts.1.10-Acts.1.11">Acts.1.10-Acts.1.11</bibleref>).<br /><br />

<hr />

Scripture shows that good angels will continue in the service of God in the future age, whereas evil angels will have their part in the eternal fire (<bibleref ref="Matt.25.41">Matt.25.41</bibleref>).

<h2>Definition and description</h2>

In Scripture records, angels constitute a distinct order among the higher echelons of universal beings.<br /><br />

<h3>Apellative terms</h3>

The word angel comes from the [[Greek]] word <em>anggelos</em>, meaning “messenger.” The corresponding [[Hebrew]] word <em>malakh</em> likewise means “messenger.” Though these terms are sometimes used to designate human messengers, as a [[prophet]] (<bibleref ref="Hag.1.13">Hag 1:13</bibleref>) or a [[priest]] (<bibleref ref="Mal.2.7">Mal 2:7</bibleref>), differentiation is usually made from context.<br /><br />

<hr />

<h3>Spiritual beings</h3>

Angels are [[spirits]], supernatural celestial beings. The author of [[Hebrews]] (<bibleref ref="Jude.1.14">1:14</bibleref>) asks, “Are they not all ministering spirits sent forth to serve, for the sake of those who are to obtain [[salvation]]?” They are more than personifications of abstract [[good]] and [[evil]], but are majestic beings whom [[God]] created to execute His [[will]] (<bibleref ref="Ps.148.2-Ps.148.5">Ps 148:2-5</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Col.1.16">Col 1:16</bibleref>). They are therefore active in a multiplicity of universal operations. They were created at a time which long antedates the [[creation of man]] (<bibleref ref="Job.38.7">Job 38:7</bibleref>).

Being spirits, angels can function as mediators between God and man. They can pass back and forth from the spiritual realm to the natural at will, unimpeded by physical boundaries (<bibleref ref="Acts.12.7">Acts 12:7</bibleref>). Angels are [[superhuman]] in [[strength]]: “Whereas angels, though greater in might and power, do not pronounce a reviling judgment upon them before the Lord” (<bibleref ref="2Pet.2.11">2 Pet 2:11</bibleref>). Yet, they are not [[omnipotent]] (<bibleref ref="Ps.103.20">Ps 103:20</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="2Thess.1.7">2 Thess 1:7</bibleref>). Angels also are endowed with superior [[intellect]] and [[wisdom]] (<bibleref ref="2Sam.14.17">2 Sam 14:17</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="2Sam.14.20">20</bibleref>), but are not omniscient (<bibleref ref="Matt.24.36">Matt 24:36</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="1Pet.1.12">1 Pet 1:12</bibleref>).<br /><br />

References to angels in common parlance sheds further light on their superhuman qualities: “And [[Achish]] made answer to [[David]], ‘I know that you are as blameless in my sight as an angel of God’” (<bibleref ref="1Sam.29.9">1 Sam 29:9</bibleref>). The wise woman from [[Tekoa]] who approached King David in disguise reflected on the superior wisdom of angels: “For my lord the king is like the angel of God to discern good and evil”; and, when David suspected that [[Joab]] was back of this ruse, she replied, “My lord has wisdom like the wisdom of the angel of God to know all things that are on the earth” (<bibleref ref="2Sam.14.17">2 Sam 14:17</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="2Sam.14.20">20</bibleref>).

[[Paul]] solemnly pronounced that “if we, or an angel from heaven, should preach to you a gospel contrary to that which we preached to you, let him be accursed” (<bibleref ref="Gal.1.8">Gal 1:8</bibleref>). Pursuing his appeal to the [[Galatians]], he recalled their former kindness to him, saying “you...received me as an angel of God” (<bibleref ref="Gal.4.14">Gal 4:14</bibleref>). Warning the [[Corinthian Christians]] against “false prophets,” Paul said that their deception was “no wonder, for even [[Satan]] disguises himself as an angel of light” (<bibleref ref="2Cor.11.14">2 Cor 11:14</bibleref>). In his masterpiece on love, Paul wrote of the eloquence of angels (<bibleref ref="1Cor.13.1">1 Cor 13:1</bibleref>).<br /><br />

When refuting the [[Saduccees]]’ argument against angels and resurrection, Jesus cited that angels were not sexual and did not [[marry]]. He also pointed out their present superiority to man, but said that men in the resurrection “are equal to angels and are sons of God, being sons of the resurrection” (<bibleref ref="Luke.20.34">Luke 20:34</bibleref>ff.). Since Jesus was temporarily [[incarnate]], the writer of Hebrews, quoting from the [[psalmist]], declared, “Thou didst make him for a little while lower than the angels” (<bibleref ref="Hebrew2.7">Heb 2:7</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Ps.8.5">Ps 8:5</bibleref>), but that ultimately He would be supreme ruler. “For it was not to angels that God subjected the world to come” (<bibleref ref="Hebrew2.5">Heb 2:5</bibleref>). And Paul asked, “Do you not know that we are to judge angels?” (<bibleref ref="1Cor.6.3">1 Cor 6:3</bibleref>). Angels, then, are created beings with both human and divine characteristics.<br /><br />

<h3>Human characteristics</h3>

Angels consistently appeared in human form, with the exception of the [[seraphim]] (<bibleref ref="Isa.6.2">Isa 6:2</bibleref>). Contrarily, angels never appeared in subhuman form, as animals, birds, or material objects. Though the angel of the Lord spoke out of [[fire]] and [[cloud]], and even caused a [[donkey]] to speak, He never identified Himself with either. Moreover, it should be observed that there is no Biblical record showing that an angel ever appeared to a wicked person or warned such a one of impending danger (<bibleref ref="Matt.24.37-Matt.24.39">Matt 24:37-39</bibleref>). Good angels always appeared to good people: [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[David]], [[Daniel]], [[Jesus]], [[Peter]], [[Paul]], and others. Furthermore, angels always appeared as men, never as women or children, and they were always [[clothed]]. As the Christ identified Himself with man in flesh and blood in a historic generation, so angels identified themselves with man in form, language, and deed during brief visits. Thus God has repeatedly revealed Himself to man by establishing rapport in the medium of human perception.<br /><br />

Many times angels were so disguised as men that they were not at first identified as angels. [[Abraham]] entertained “three men” as dinner guests. One remained to talk with him while the other “two angels” went on down to [[Sodom]] and spent the night with [[Lot]], who thought that they were men (<bibleref ref="Gen.18.2">Gen 18:2</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Gen.19.1">19:1</bibleref>). Referring to this incident, the writer of Hebrews admonished his brethren “to show hospitality to strangers, for thereby some have entertained angels unawares” (<bibleref ref="Hebrew13.2">Heb 13:2</bibleref>). Just before [[Joshua]]’s attack on [[Jericho]] “a man stood before him with his drawn sword in his hand,” and he was God’s angel (<bibleref ref="Josh.5.13">Josh 5:13</bibleref>). [[Gideon]] did not know that his reassuring guest was an angel until he had served him a sumptuous meal of kid, cakes and broth and the angel had made a burnt offering of it (<bibleref ref="Judg.6.21">Judg 6:21</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Judg.6.22">22</bibleref>). “The angel of the Lord” made several appearances as “a man” to [[Manoah]] and his wife (<bibleref ref="Judg.13.21">13:21</bibleref>).<br /><br />

Occasionally angels displayed themselves as men with awesome appearances in countenance or clothing. The description given by Manoah’s wife was, “A man of God came to me, and his countenance was like the countenance of the angel of God, very terrible” (<bibleref ref="Judg.13.6">13:6</bibleref>). Women at the [[tomb]] reported that “two men stood by them in dazzling apparel” (<bibleref ref="Luke.24.4">Luke 24:4</bibleref>). As the Twelve witnessed Jesus’ ascension, “two men stood by them in white robes” (<bibleref ref="Acts.1.10">Acts 1:10</bibleref>).<br /><br />

<hr />

<h2>Classification and names</h2>

Angels were created [[holy]] (<bibleref ref="Gen.1.31">Gen 1:31</bibleref>), and like men were given freedom of choice in attitude and action during a [[probationary period]] (<bibleref ref="Jude.1.6">Jude 6</bibleref>). Some chose to worship and serve God and some rebelled, creating two major divisions of angels: good and evil.

<h3>Good angels</h3>

Good angels are called “the holy angels,” “the angels of God” (<bibleref ref="Luke.9.26">Luke 9:26</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Luke.12.8">12:8</bibleref>), and “God’s angels” (<bibleref ref="Hebrew1.6">Heb 1:6</bibleref>; cf. <bibleref ref="Ps.103.20">Ps 103:20</bibleref>). Jesus spoke of “his angels” (<bibleref ref="Matt.16.27">Matt 16:27</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Matt.24.31">24:31</bibleref>), and “angels in heaven” (<bibleref ref="Matt.22.30">22:30</bibleref>). Paul referred to “his mighty angels” (<bibleref ref="2Thess.1.7">2 Thess 1:7</bibleref>).

Of these good angels only two are mentioned by name in the Bible.<br /><br />

<h4>Michael</h4>

First, [[Michael]] is called the archangel by [[Jude]] (<bibleref ref="2Thess.1.9">v. 9</bibleref>), while in the <span class="auto-link">[[Book of Daniel]]</span> (<span class="bibleref-error">10:13</span>) the messenger angel called him “one of the chief princes.” In Revelation (<span class="bibleref-error">12:7</span>, <bibleref ref="2Thess.1.8">8</bibleref>) Michael is portrayed as the commander of the army of good angels who defeated and expelled the bad angels from heaven.

<h4>Gabriel</h4>

Second, Gabriel appears to be the chief messenger angel. He announced the forthcoming births of <span class="auto-link">[[John the Baptist]]</span> and of Jesus (<bibleref ref="Luke.1.13">Luke 1:13</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Luke.1.31">31</bibleref>). He also interpreted Daniel’s dream and on the same mission delivered God’s decree (<bibleref ref="Dan.8.15">Dan 8:15</bibleref>ff.).

<h4>Essene List of Good Angels</h4>

[[Josephus]] stated that the initiation oath of the Essenes included the pledge to preserve the names of angels. This interest in angels is illustrated in the DSS which show the emphasis the [[Qumran Essenes]] placed on the later Jewish writings in which angels figure prominently. The apocryphal <span class="auto-link">[[Book of Enoch]]</span> (see <bibleref ref="Gen.5.24">Gen 5:24</bibleref>), apparently the work of several Essene authors, contains an interesting list of angel names. Each of the names is followed by the phrase “one of the holy angels,” and for the sake of brevity is omitted here: “And these are the names of the holy angels who watch: Uriel...who is over the world and over Tartarus; Raphael...who is over the spirits of men; Raguel...who takes care of the world of the luminaries; Michael...is set over the best part of mankind and over chaos; Saraqael...is set over the spirits who sin in the spirit; Gabriel...is over paradise and the serpents and the cherubim; Remiel...whom God set over those who rise” (1 Enoch 20). Good angels will continue their blissful existence with God and His elect in the future age.<br /><br />

<h3>Bad angels</h3>

Bad angels consist of “the [[devil]] and his angels.” Their habitation was for some time in [[heaven]], but they proved unfaithful to their [[trust]] and were driven out of heaven down to [[earth]] by the holy angels (<bibleref ref="Rev.12.7">Rev 12:7</bibleref>ff.). The apostasy of the angels took place before man’s creation, for “The Old Serpent” caused Adam and Eve to sin in the Garden of Eden. Out of the group of degenerate angels [[Satan]] emerged as the chief exponent of evil and wickedness. The Pharisees called him “Beelzebul, prince of demons” (<bibleref ref="Matt.12.24">Matt 12:24</bibleref>). Jesus said that the devil was a murderer, a liar, and the father of lies (<bibleref ref="John.8.44">John 8:44</bibleref>). Paul said that Christians are contending “against the spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places” (<bibleref ref="Eph.6.12">Eph 6:12</bibleref>). Bad angels will in the end be cast “into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels” (<bibleref ref="Matt.25.41">Matt 25:41</bibleref>). The nebulous passage of <bibleref ref="Gen.6.1-Gen.6.5">Genesis 6:1-5</bibleref>, showing the increase of wickedness as man multiplied, is translated in numerous ways. One of the oldest commentaries on the subject is an elaborate account of the same story in the apocryphal [[Book of Enoch]]. In its mythological account an attempt is made to solve the problem of sin by attributing it to marriages between lustful, degenerate angels and earthly women (1 Enoch 15:9-16).<br /><br />

<h3>The Angelic Host</h3>

The phrase "the host of heaven" is applied to the stars, which were sometimes worshipped by idolatrous [[Jews]] (<bibleref ref="Jer.33.22">Jer 33:22</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="2Kgs.21.3">2Ki 21:3</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Zeph.1.5">Ze 1:5</bibleref>); the name is applied to the company of angels because of their countless numbers (compare <bibleref ref="Dan.7.10">Da 7:10</bibleref>) and their glory. They are represented as standing on the right and left hand of [[Yahweh]] (<bibleref ref="1Kgs.22.19">1Ki 22:19</bibleref>). Hence God, who is over them all, is continually called throughout [[Old Testament]] "the God of hosts," "Yahweh of hosts," "Yahweh God of hosts"; and once "the prince of the host" (<bibleref ref="Dan.8.11">Da 8:11</bibleref>).<br /><br />

One of the principal functions of the heavenly host is to be ever praising the name of the Lord (<bibleref ref="Ps.103.21">Ps 103:21</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Ps.148.1-Ps.148.14">148:1 f</bibleref>). In this host there are certain figures that stand out prominently, and some of them are named. The angel who appears to Joshua calls himself "prince of the host of Yahweh" (<bibleref ref="Josh.5.14">Jos 5:14</bibleref> f). The glorious angel who interprets to [[Daniel]] the vision which he saw in the third year of [[Cyrus]] (<bibleref ref="Dan.10.5">Da 10:5</bibleref>), like the angel who interprets the vision in the first year of [[Belshazzar]] (<bibleref ref="Dan.7.16">Da 7:16</bibleref>), is not named; but other visions of the same prophet were explained to him by the angel Gabriel, who is called "the man Gabriel," and is described as speaking with "a man’s voice" (<bibleref ref="Dan.9.21">Da 9:21</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Dan.8.15-Dan.8.27">8:15 f</bibleref>).<br /><br />

In Daniel we find occasional reference made to "princes": "the [[prince of Persia]]," "the prince of Greece" (<bibleref ref="Dan.10.20">Da 10:20</bibleref>). These are angels to whom is entrusted the charge of, and possibly the rule over, certain peoples. Most notable among them is Michael, described as "one of the chief princes," "the great prince who standeth for the children of thy people," and, more briefly, "your prince" (<bibleref ref="Dan.10.13">Da 10:13</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Dan.12.1">12:1</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Dan.10.21">10:21</bibleref>); Michael is therefore regarded as the patron-angel of the [[Jews]].<br /><br />

In Apocrypha Raphael, Uriel and Jeremiel are also named. Of Raphael it is said (Tobit 12:15) that he is "one of the seven holy angels who present the prayers of the saints" to God (compare <bibleref ref="Rev.8.2">Re 8:2</bibleref>, "the seven angels that stand before God"). It is possible that this group of seven is referred to in the above-quoted phrase, "one of the chief princes". Some (notably Kosters) have maintained that the expressions "the sons of the ’elohim," God’s "council" and "congregation," refer to the ancient gods of the heathen, now degraded and wholly subordinated to Yahweh. This rather daring speculation has little support in Scripture; but we find traces of a belief that the patron-angels of the nations have failed in establishing righteousness within their allotted sphere on earth, and that they will accordingly be punished by Yahweh their over-Lord (<bibleref ref="Isa.24.21-Isa.24.23">Isa 24:21 f</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Ps.82.1-Ps.82.8">Ps 82</bibleref>; compare <bibleref ref="Ps.58.1">Ps 58:1</bibleref> f the Revised Version, margin; compare <bibleref ref="Jude.1.6">Jude 1:6</bibleref>).<br /><br />

<h2>The angel of God</h2>

Also called "the angel of the Lord," "the angel of Jehovah," and "The Angel of the Theophany." Stands out in distinct pre-eminence in the Old Testament.<br /><br />

<h3>Character and distinctiveness</h3>

Though it was natural for the above terminology to be applied to any good angel (<bibleref ref="Matt.2.20">Matt 2:20</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Matt.2.23">23</bibleref>) there was definitely a [[theophanic mediator]], unique and distinct. He introduced Himself as the Deity, and yet as distinct from God. He spoke face to face with early Bible characters as man to man, in whose form He appeared. “The angel of the Lord” gave aid and encouragement to [[Hagar]], [[Sarai]]’s Egyptian slave girl, twice in her distress in the wilderness (<bibleref ref="Gen.16.7">Gen 16:7</bibleref>ff.; <bibleref ref="Gen.21.17">21:17</bibleref>).<br /><br />

On the second occasion He called from heaven, as He did on two occasions to [[Abraham]]: when He stopped his attempt to [[sacrifice]] [[Isaac]] and when He promised him countless descendants (<bibleref ref="Gen.22.11">22:11</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Gen.22.15">15</bibleref>ff.). He was spokesman of the “three men” who came to announce to Abraham the impending doom of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]], and to foretell the birth of [[Isaac]]. After the other two left for Sodom, Abraham detained Him in his supplication to spare the city (<bibleref ref="Gen.18.1-Gen.19.1">18:1-19:1</bibleref>). The angel of the Lord accompanied [[Eliezer]] on his mission to [[Haran]] to get a wife for Isaac, through whom the chosen people were to be perpetuated (<bibleref ref="Gen.24.7">24:7</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Gen.24.40">40</bibleref>). He appeared to Jacob in a foreign land and identified Himself as “the God of Bethel,” and instructed him to go home (<bibleref ref="Gen.31.11-Gen.31.13">31:11-13</bibleref>). Later, after wrestling with Him, Jacob said, “I have seen God face to face” (<bibleref ref="Gen.32.24-Gen.32.30">32:24-30</bibleref>).<br /><br />

<hr />

Early in the period of the [[judges]], when the Israelites were forsaking God, the angel of the Lord spoke to them at [[Bochim]] (Bethel ? <bibleref ref="Judg.2.1-Judg.2.5">Judg 2:1-5</bibleref>). He later appeared to [[Gideon]] to commission him for military leadership (<bibleref ref="Judg.6.11-Judg.6.14">6:11-14</bibleref>). Then He appeared to [[Manoah]] and his wife to promise them a son, Samson (<bibleref ref="Judg.13.1-Judg.13.25">ch. 13</bibleref>). He appeared to [[David]] at the threshing floor of [[Ornan]] where He stopped the destroying angel; and afterward He commanded the prophet [[Gad]] to order David to build an altar on that rock (<bibleref ref="1Chr.21.15">1 Chron 21:15</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="1Chr.21.18">18</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="1Chr.21.27">27</bibleref>). The angel of the Lord received a report from the angels who patrolled the earth and then asked God to have mercy on [[Jerusalem]] (<bibleref ref="Ezek.1.10-Ezek.1.13">Ezek 1:10-13</bibleref>).<br /><br />

<h3>Pre-incarnate Logos</h3>

The question of identity of “the angel of God” has aroused an intriguing interest in Bible students. The view in which most concur is that He is a distinct personal self-manifestation of [[God]], who may be called the incarnate [[Logos]]. The reference in <bibleref ref="Judg.2.1">Judges 2:1</bibleref> shows clearly that “the angel of the Lord” is God in His self-manifestation. This is also the case with similar patriarchal passages dealing with [[Abraham]], [[Jacob]], and [[Moses]]. The angel whom David saw at the threshing floor was superior in rank to the destroying angel whom He ordered to stop. He later spoke with divine authority concerning the building of the altar on the spot. He was of the angelic order, but was superior to other angels. He always had the same specific personality, distinguishable from angels in general. For instance, He was not restricted to executing a single order, but, like Jesus, He spoke with authority as though He were God Himself. Only the Logos, or some other manifest personification of God, would be able to do that.

[[John]] declared that the Logos “was in the beginning with God” and that He “was God”; that He was instrumental in the [[Creation]]; and, that “The Logos became flesh and dwelt among us” (<bibleref ref="John.1.1-John.1.14">John 1:1-14</bibleref>). It is interesting to note that this angel did not appear on earth while Jesus was in the flesh. The angel who announced Jesus’ birth to the [[shepherds]] was probably Gabriel, but was referred to only as “an angel of the Lord” (<bibleref ref="Luke.2.9">Luke 2:9</bibleref>).

Other resemblances between “the angel of the Lord” and Jesus support the thesis that He was the preincarnate Logos. The wife of Manoah reported that His countenance was “very terrible”; and, His appearance to David and to Balaam was terrifying. He appeared to Moses in the midst of a fire, and vanished from [[Gideon]] with the holocaust fire. Daniel said His eyes were like flaming torches, and Ezekiel saw a brightness “like the appearance of fire” around one in “human form” seated on a throne (<bibleref ref="Dan.10.6">Dan 10:6</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Ezek.1.26">Ezek 1:26</bibleref>ff.). In comparison to these descriptions one can find striking similarities in John’s vision of Jesus, a part of which is, “his eyes were like a flame of fire, his feet were like burnished bronze, refined as in a furnace, and his voice was like the sound of many waters” (<bibleref ref="Rev.1.14">Rev 1:14</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Rev.1.16">16</bibleref>).<br /><br />

It is amazing how often the appearance of “the angel of the Lord” marked a turning point in history, or sparked the innovation of some project with long-lasting consequences. Some examples are the founding of the chosen race by or through Abraham; deliverance of the same race from Egypt; founding a [[theocracy]] at [[Mt. Sinai]]; leading an [[Israelite]] settlement into the [[Promised Land]]; laying foundation for [[Solomon’s Temple]] by ordering an altar built on [[Ornan’s threshing floor]] rock; supporting [[Elijah]] in preserving [[monotheism]]; and protecting His elect in the Babylonian captivity.<br /><br />

Another characteristic of the [[deity]] exercised by “the angel of God” was the authority to forgive sins (<bibleref ref="Exod.23.21">Exod 23:21</bibleref>). In summary, “the angel of the Lord” was the guardian angel of the chosen race. The following words in Isaiah’s prophecy are both predictive and reflective: “In all their affliction he was afflicted, and the angel of his presence saved them; in his love and in his pity he redeemed them; he lifted them up and carried them all the days of old” (<span class="bibleref-error">63:9</span>).<br /><br />

<h2>Distribution of work</h2>

In general the work of angels is to execute God’s universal will in heaven and on earth. They praise, reverence, and obey God. They promote divine goodness, and they are mediators of God’s love and good will to man. With their relation to man, the writer of Hebrews states tersely the role of angels in his question: “Are they not all ministering spirits sent forth to serve, for the sake of those who are to obtain salvation?” (<bibleref ref="Exod.1.14">1:14</bibleref>). Their service is rendered throughout a wide distribution of duties, observed in the following categories.

<h3>To announce and forewarn</h3>

Angels announced beforehand the births of some of God’s select [[servants]]. An angel announced in advance to [[Abraham]] and [[Sarai]] the conception and birth of their son [[Isaac]] (<bibleref ref="Gen.18.9">Gen 18:9</bibleref>f.). Likewise, an angel foretold the birth of [[Samson]] to his parents, Manoah and his wife (<bibleref ref="Judg.13.2-Judg.13.24">Judg 13:2-24</bibleref>). Gabriel announced the birth of [[John the Baptist]] to his father [[Zechariah]] before his wife [[Elizabeth]] became pregnant, and the birth of [[Jesus]] to [[Mary]] before she was with child (<bibleref ref="Luke.1.13">Luke 1:13</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Luke.1.30">30</bibleref>). On the night of Jesus’ birth, that momentous event was announced by an angel to the shepherds and immediately was joined by a chorus of heavenly angels praising God and blessing man (<bibleref ref="Luke.2.8-Luke.2.15">Luke 2:8-15</bibleref>).

Angels not only announced blessed events, but on occasions forewarned the [[righteous]] of imminent danger or threatening disaster. Abraham and Lot were forewarned by angels of the destruction of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] (<bibleref ref="Gen.18.16-Gen.19.29">Gen 18:16-19:29</bibleref>). Joseph was warned by an angel to “take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there till I tell you; for [[Herod]] is about to search for the child, to destroy him” (<bibleref ref="Matt.2.13">Matt 2:13</bibleref>). Gabriel revealed future events involving God’s judgment to the prophet Daniel: “He said, ‘Behold, I will make known to you what shall be at the latter end of the indignation; for it pertains to the appointed time of the end’” (<bibleref ref="Dan.8.19">Dan 8:19</bibleref>). Similarly, an angel revealed to John on Patmos in a kaleidoscope of visions some eschatological scenes including the Resurrection, the Judgment, and <span class="auto-link">[[New Jerusalem]]</span> (<bibleref ref="Rev.1.1-Rev.22.21">Rev 1-22</bibleref>).<br /><br />

<h3>To guide and instruct</h3>

From the day that [[Abraham]] left his home in <span class="auto-link">[[Ur of the Chaldees]]</span> until [[Joshua]] settled the tribes of Israel in [[Canaan]], there is the manifest implication that the chosen people were divinely led. Always and everywhere during the nomadic wandering of the [[patriarchs]], the sojourn in Egypt, and the wilderness tour to the Promised Land, an angel, visible or invisible, seemed to be ever near. Abraham was repeatedly in conversation with angels, and when he sent his servant Eliezer to Mesopotamia to get a wife for Isaac he assured him that God “will send his angel with you” (<bibleref ref="Gen.24.7">Gen 24:7</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Gen.24.40">40</bibleref>). Later, when Jacob was on a similar mission for himself, he had a marvelous dream of angels ascending and descending a ladder reaching from earth to heaven, with the Lord standing above and giving the reassurance, “I am with you and will keep you wherever you go, and will bring you back to this land; for I will not leave you until I have done that which I have spoken to you” (<bibleref ref="Gen.28.12-Gen.28.15">28:12-15</bibleref>).<br /><br />

When [[Moses]] led the [[Israelites]] out of Egypt, “the angel of God who went before the host of Israel moved and went behind them” (<bibleref ref="Exod.14.19">Exod 14:19</bibleref>). Subsequently Moses reassured the Israelites with God’s promise, “Behold, I send an angel before you, to guard you on the way and to bring you to the place which I have prepared” (<bibleref ref="Exod.23.20">23:20</bibleref>). He bolstered this promise by recalling that the Lord “sent an angel and brought us forth out of Egypt” (<bibleref ref="Num.20.16">Num 20:16</bibleref>). Directing and instructing were kindred functions, often combined in the same angelic mission.<br /><br />

The most comprehensive instruction in the Old Testament was the law received by Moses from an angel on [[Mt. Sinai]]. When [[Stephen]] was on trial before the [[Sanhedrin]], he mentioned in his survey of Israel’s history, “the angel who spoke to him (Moses) at Mount Sinai,” and proceeded to charge the rulers that they had “received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it” (<bibleref ref="Acts.7.38">Acts 7:38</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Acts.7.53">53</bibleref>). [[Paul]] said that the law “was ordained by angels through an intermediary” (<bibleref ref="Gal.3.19">Gal 3:19</bibleref>). [[Elihu]] envisioned “an angel, a mediator...to declare to man what is right for him” (<bibleref ref="Job.33.23">Job 33:23</bibleref>). An angel gave [[Manoah’s wife]] instructions for her personal care during pregnancy and for rearing her son [[Samson]] (<bibleref ref="Judg.13.3-Judg.13.5">Judg 13:3-5</bibleref>). An angel informed Joseph of the nature of Mary’s conception and instructed him to marry her (<bibleref ref="Matt.1.20">Matt 1:20</bibleref>f.). An angel appeared to the centurion [[Cornelius]] at [[Caesarea]] and told him to “send men to [[Joppa]], and bring one Simon who is called [[Peter]],” and gave direction where to find him (<bibleref ref="Acts.10.3-Acts.10.5">Acts 10:3-5</bibleref>). An angel instructed [[Philip]] to leave [[Samaria]] and go to a desert place on the [[Jerusalem-Gaza road]], where later he was to learn the purpose of the mission (<bibleref ref="Acts.8.26">8:26</bibleref>ff.).<br /><br />

Paul repeatedly received divine instruction, mediated, at least at times, by angels. One striking example was while in a storm at sea an angel stood by Paul and assured him of his safety, and that of the crew, and told him that he was yet to stand before Caesar (<bibleref ref="Acts.27.23">27:23</bibleref>f.). Angels also interpreted visions for Zechariah, Daniel, and John (<bibleref ref="Zech.1.9">Zech 1:9</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Zech.1.19">19</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Dan.7.16">Dan 7:16</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Rev.17.7">Rev 17:7</bibleref>).

<h3>To guard and defend</h3>

The belief in guardian angels is an old one and has scriptural basis. “The angel of the <span class="small-caps">Lord</span> encamps around those who fear him, and delivers them” (<bibleref ref="Ps.34.7">Ps 34:7</bibleref>). An angel guarded [[Jacob]] during his twenty years in [[Haran]] and brought him safely home to [[Canaan]] (<bibleref ref="Gen.32.24">Gen 32:24</bibleref>ff.). An angel, by cloud and fire, defended [[Israel]] from [[Egypt]] during the [[Exodus]] (<bibleref ref="Exod.14.19">Exod 14:19</bibleref>f.). When [[Moab]] and [[Midian]] allied to bring a curse of destruction on Israel, their plan was aborted by an angel who made [[Balaam]] revise his prophecy and rewrite his [[sermon]] (<bibleref ref="Num.22.1-Num.22.41">Num 22</bibleref>). Reminiscent of Jacob’s experience in meeting “God’s army” of angels on returning to Canaan was that of Joshua when he met the “commander of the army of the Lord” who joined him as an ally at the beginning of the conquest of Canaan (<bibleref ref="Gen.32.1">Gen 32:1</bibleref>f.; <bibleref ref="Josh.5.14">Josh 5:14</bibleref>).<br /><br />

In [[David]]’s [[thanksgiving psalm]] he sang, “Bless the <span class="small-caps">Lord,</span> O you his angels, you mighty ones who do his word” (<bibleref ref="Ps.103.20">Ps 103:20</bibleref>). God’s army stood by to defend Elisha and his servant (<bibleref ref="2Kgs.6.17">2 Kings 6:17</bibleref>). The writer of [[Chronicles]], profoundly impressed with the “mighty men of valor” who continued to come to David’s support, said, “From day to day men kept coming to David to help him, until there was a great army, like an army of God” (<bibleref ref="1Chr.12.22">1 Chron 12:22</bibleref>). An angel prevented Abraham from committing murder and losing his only son of promise, and at the same time guarded the life of Isaac (<bibleref ref="Gen.22.9-Gen.22.12">Gen 22:9-12</bibleref>). An angel guarded the lives of Daniel and the three young Hebrews against the sentences of death pronounced by powerful rulers (<bibleref ref="Dan.3.28">Dan 3:28</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Dan.6.22">6:22</bibleref>).

On the subject of guardian angels for children, [[Jesus]] warned, “See that you do not despise one of these little ones; for I tell you that in heaven their angels always be hold the face of my Father who is in heaven” (<bibleref ref="Matt.18.10">Matt 18:10</bibleref>). The psalmist, after listing some of the worst perils that threaten man, pointed to God as his refuge and declared, “he will give his angels charge of you to guard you in all your ways” (<bibleref ref="Ps.91.11">Ps 91:11</bibleref>). The angel who talked with [[Daniel]] said that he had been the guardian angel of [[Dariu]]s. He had just stated that Michael was the guardian angel of Daniel, probably in the broader sense of the [[Jews]], and that he and Michael had contended with the prince (angel) of Persia and that later the prince of Greece would come (<bibleref ref="Dan.10.13-Dan.11.1">Dan 10:13-11:1</bibleref>). Obviously, then, nations and cities, as well as individuals, have guardian angels. To this may also be added churches, as seen by the seven angels respectively assigned to the seven churches of Asia Minor (<bibleref ref="Rev.2.1-Rev.2.29">Rev 2</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Rev.3.1-Rev.3.22">3</bibleref>).

In the guardianship of God’s people, angels were sometimes engaged in militant action against their enemies. “The destroyer,” the [[angel of death]], slew the first-born of the Egyptians to force the release of the Israelites from the bondage of slavery (<bibleref ref="Exod.12.23">Exod 12:23</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Exod.12.29">29</bibleref>). When [[Sennacherib]]’s army threatened the destruction of Jerusalem in the days of [[King Hezekiah]] and the prophet [[Isaiah]], “that night the angel of the Lord went forth, and slew a hundred and eighty-five thousand in the camp of the Assyrians” (<bibleref ref="2Kgs.19.35">2 Kings 19:35</bibleref>). The most enlightening and most reassuring comment on angelic guardianship was spoken by Jesus Himself at the time of His arrest in the [[Garden of Gethsemane]]. [[Peter]] had just attempted a valiant defense of Jesus by wielding his sword with a degree of effectiveness, when Jesus disarmed him and uttered amazing words of reassurance: “Do you think that I cannot appeal to my Father, and he will at once send me more than twelve [[legions]] of angels?” (<bibleref ref="Matt.26.53">Matt 26:53</bibleref>).<br /><br />

<h3>To minister in need</h3>

All angelic service to [[man]] is ministering in some form to man’s needs. Angels are [[mediators]] of God’s love and good will to men, and their mission is always [[benevolent]], either immediately or ultimately. As already seen, angels administered to [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]], and [[Jacob]] in times of critical need. Nor did angelic service end with men of honorable estate, but with tender compassion ministered necessary aid to the slave girl, [[Hagar]], and her young boy, [[Ishmael]], when they were threatened with thirst and starvation in the wilderness (<bibleref ref="Gen.21.17">Gen 21:17</bibleref>f.). When the Israelites were sorely oppressed by the taskmaster’s lash and seemingly hopeless Egyptian bondage, the angel of the Lord came to [[Moses]] and said, “I have seen the affliction of my people who are in [[Egypt]], and have heard their cry because of their taskmasters; I know their sufferings, and I have come...to deliver them” (<bibleref ref="Exod.3.7">Exod 3:7</bibleref>f.).<br /><br />

When [[Elijah]], with [[exhaustion]], [[fear]], and [[loneliness]], fell asleep under a [[broom tree]] in the desert, a celestial being ministered to his needs. An angel awoke him and served him with a hot cake and a jar of [[water]], which provided him with [[strength]] for a long [[journey]] ahead (<bibleref ref="1Kgs.19.5-1Kgs.19.7">1 Kings 19:5-7</bibleref>). After [[Jesus]] had spent [[forty days]] in the [[wilderness]], threatened by wild [[beasts]], weakened by [[fasting]], and harassed by the [[devil]], “the angels ministered to him” (<bibleref ref="Mark.1.13">Mark 1:13</bibleref>). In His agony, loneliness, and sorrow in [[Gethsemane]] “there appeared to him an angel from heaven, strengthening him” (<bibleref ref="Luke.22.43">Luke 22:43</bibleref>). After Jesus had been laid in the tomb, “an angel of the Lord descended from heaven and came and rolled back the stone, and sat upon it” (<bibleref ref="Matt.28.2">Matt 28:2</bibleref>). [[Peter]] was delivered from chains and prison by an angel, just as earlier “at night an angel of the Lord opened the prison doors and brought” the apostles out and commanded them to go into the [[Temple]] and [[preach]] (<bibleref ref="Acts.5.19">Acts 5:19</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Acts.12.6-Acts.12.11">12:6-11</bibleref>).<br /><br />

<h3>To assist in judgment</h3>

Finally, angels assist in [[God’s judgment]]. Enough instances are on record to show that this is continually being done in human history. Some have already been mentioned. Another striking example of this is the death of [[Herod Agrippa]]: “Immediately an angel of the Lord smote him, because he did not give God the glory; and he was eaten by worms and died” (<bibleref ref="Acts.12.23">Acts 12:23</bibleref>). Some examples of their roles in judgment are shown in the visions of [[John]] on [[Patmos]].

One angel with great authority and amazing splendor proclaimed the fall of [[Rome]], while a mighty angel threw a large stone into the sea, symbolizing the fall of Rome (<bibleref ref="Rev.18.1">Rev 18:1</bibleref>, <bibleref ref="Rev.18.21">21</bibleref>). In the outset of the war in which Christ and His heavenly armies defeated the beast and his cohorts, an angel stood in the [[sun]] and summoned carrion fowl to eat the [[corpses]] of God’s enemies to be slain in the conflict (<bibleref ref="Rev.19.17">19:17</bibleref>f.).<br /><br />

<hr />

<h2>The Teaching of Jesus about Angels</h2>

<hr />

<h2>Other New Testament References</h2>

[[Paul]] refers to the ranks of angels ("principalities, powers" etc.) only in order to emphasize the complete supremacy of Jesus Christ. He teaches that angels will be judged by the [[saints]] (<bibleref ref="1Cor.6.3">1Co 6:3</bibleref>). He attacks the incipient [[Gnosticism]] of [[Asia Minor]] by forbidding the [[worship]] of angels (<bibleref ref="Col.2.18">Col 2:18</bibleref>). He speaks of God’s angels as "elect," because they are included in the counsels of Divine love (<bibleref ref="1Tim.5.21">1Ti 5:21</bibleref>).<br /><br />

When Paul commands the women to keep their heads covered in church because of the angels (<bibleref ref="1Cor.11.10">1Co 11:10</bibleref>) he probably means that the angels, who watch all human affairs with deep interest, would be pained to see any infraction of the laws of [[modesty]]. In <bibleref ref="Hebrew1.14">Heb 1:14</bibleref> angels are described as ministering spirits engaged in the service of the saints. [[Peter]] also emphasizes the supremacy of our Lord over all angelic beings (<bibleref ref="1Pet.3.22">1Pe 3:22</bibleref>).<br /><br />

The references to angels in 2 Peter and Jude are colored by contact with Apocrypha literature. In Revelation, where the references are obviously symbolic, there is very frequent mention of angels. The angels of the [[seven churches]] (<bibleref ref="Rev.1.20">Re 1:20</bibleref>) are the guardian angels or the personifications of these churches. The worship of angels is also forbidden (<bibleref ref="Rev.22.8">Re 22:8</bibleref> f).

Specially interesting is the mention of elemental angels—"the angel of the waters" (<bibleref ref="Rev.16.5">Re 16:5</bibleref>), and the angel "that hath power over fire" (<bibleref ref="Rev.14.18">Re 14:18</bibleref>; compare <bibleref ref="Rev.7.1">Re 7:1</bibleref>; <bibleref ref="Rev.19.17">19:17</bibleref>). Reference is also made to the "angel of the bottomless pit," who is called <em>[[Abaddon]]</em> or <em>Apollyon</em> (which see), evidently an evil angel (<bibleref ref="Rev.9.11">Re 9:11</bibleref> the <span class="auto-link">[[King James Version]]</span>, the Revised Version (British and American) "abyss"). In <bibleref ref="Rev.12.7">Re 12:7</bibleref> ff we are told that there was war between Michael with his angels and the dragon with his angels.<br /><br />

<h2>Angelology</h2>

Angels are referred to with candor and credulity from [[Genesis]] to [[Revelation]], from Abraham “by the oaks of Mamre” to John “on the island called Patmos.” Their appearances are reported at various places in Bible lands over more than 2,000 years. Scripture writers assume the existence of angels and, therefore, make no attempt to prove it.<br /><br />

The earliest archeological evidence of angels to date appears on the stele of [[Ur-Nammus]], c. 2250 <span class="small-caps">b.c.,</span> where angels are seen flying over the head of this king while in prayer. Since Abraham came on the scene in this area soon after that time, he doubtless was acquainted with angelology from youth and saw clearly that it had a natural place in the monotheism which he fostered. Though angelology was mixed with mythology in the primitive religions, and in the [[polytheism]] of Israel’s neighbors, the chosen people did not borrow distorted concepts from them only to be sloughed off with the maturation of their own religion.<br /><br />

Contrarily, the records of angels increases as Biblical history unfolds. They were sporadic throughout the Old Testament until near its close. During the Babylonian captivity angels became more evident. It is the opinion of Bible scholars generally that [[Zoroastrianism]] made a generous contribution to Jewish angelology.<br /><br />

<h3>Zoroastrianism</h3>

In the childhood of the race it was easy to believe in God, and He was very near to the soul. In [[Paradise]] there is no thought of angels; it is God Himself who walks in the garden. A little later the thought of angels appears, but, God has not gone away, and as "the angel of Yahweh" He appears to His people and redeems them. In these early times the Jews believed that there were multitudes of angels, not yet divided in thought into good and bad; these had no names or personal characteristics, but were simply embodied messages. Till the time of the captivity the Jewish angelology shows little development. During that dark period they came into close contact with a [[polytheistic]] people, only to be more deeply confirmed in their monotheism thereby. They also became acquainted with the purer faith of the [[Persians]], and in all probability viewed the tenets of Zoroastrianism with a more favorable eye, because of the great kindness of [[Cyrus]] to their nation.<br /><br />

There are few direct traces of Zoroastrianism in the later angelology of the Old Testament. It is not even certain that the number seven as applied to the highest group of angels is Persian in its origin; the number seven was not wholly disregarded by the Jews. One result of the contact was that the idea of a hierarchy of the angels was more fully developed. The conception in David of angels as "watchers," and the idea of patron-princes or angel-guardians of nations may be set down to Persian influence. It is probable that contact with the Persians helped the Jews to develop ideas already latent in their minds. According to Jewish tradition, the names of the angels came from [[Babylon]]. By this time the consciousness of sin had grown more intense in the Jewish mind, and God had receded to an immeasurable distance; the angels helped to fill the gap between God and man. The more elaborate conceptions of [[Daniel]] and [[Zechariah]] are further developed in [[Apocrypha]], especially in 2 Esdras, Tobit and 2 Maccabees.<br /><br />

<h3>New Testament</h3>

The New Testament opens with angel activity and continues so to its end. The visible activity of angels has been superseded by the <span class="auto-link">[[Holy Spirit]]</span>, who now guides Christians “into all the truth” (<bibleref ref="John.16.13">John 16:13</bibleref>).

We find that the [[Sadducees]], as contrasted with the [[Pharisees]], did not believe in angels or spirits (<bibleref ref="Acts.23.8">Ac 23:8</bibleref>). We may conclude that the Sadducees, with their [[materialistic]] standpoint, and denial of the [[resurrection]], regarded angels merely as symbolical expressions of God’s actions. It is noteworthy in this connection that the great priestly document (Priestly Code, P) makes no mention of angels. The <span class="auto-link">[[Book of Revelation]]</span> naturally shows a close kinship to the books of Ezekiel and Daniel.

<h2>Additional Christian Views</h2>

<h3>Roman Catholic</h3>

The Roman Catholic doctrine of angels is dubiously indebted to the Greek writings of Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite, through the Latin rendering of John Erigena. This unscriptural elaboration has prompted widespread abuse. The <span class="auto-link">[[Council of Trent]]</span> taught that angels intercede for men and that “it is good and profitable to invoke them suppliantly ... for the purpose of obtaining benefits from God through His Son <span class="auto-link">[[Jesus Christ]]</span>.”<br /><br />

<h3>Orthodox Protestant</h3>

Orthodox Protestant views are copiously quoted in [[Heppe]], <em>Reformed Dogmatics</em>, pp. 201-219: these follow familiar biblical lines. While angels are incorporeal and immortal, they were originally created <em>ex nihilo</em> and therefore lack true eternity, the prerogative of deity, which has to be retrospective as well as anticipatory. Though finite and therefore limited spirits, they possess powers far outstripping those of man, with knowledge based on “nature, use and revelation.”<br /><br />

<h2>Bibliography</h2>

<li>J. H. Thayer, <em>A Greek-English Lexicon of the <span class="auto-link">[[New Testament]]</span></em> (1889), 5f., 135, 464f.;</li>
<li>J. M. Adams, <em>Biblical Backgrounds</em> (1934), 36-41;</li>
<li>F. F. Bruce, <em>Second Thoughts on the <span class="auto-link">[[Dead Sea Scrolls]]</span></em> (1956), 116, 120;</li>
<li>N. K. Gottwald, <em>A Light to the Nations</em> (1959), 26, 260, 440, 480, 525, 531f.;</li>
<li>B. Davies, <em>Student’s Hebrew Lexicon</em> (1960), 354f.;</li>
<li>G. Gordh, <em>Christian Faith and Its Cultural Expression</em> (1962), 52, 118, 161f., 188;</li>
<li>R. de Vaux, <em>Ancient Israel</em> (1962), 112, 277, 298, 306, 309, 332, 355, 407, 426, 450;</li>
<li>C. M. Connick, <em>Jesus: The Man, The Mission, The Message</em> (1963), 5, 102;</li>
<li>H. M. Buck, <em>People of the Lord</em> (1966), 540;</li>
<li>E. W. K. Mould, <em>Essentials of Bible History</em> (1966), 459, 506, 512-516.</li>
<li>E. Langton, <em>The Angel Teaching of the <span class="auto-link">[[New Testament]]</span></em>, 1937;</li>
<li>W. G. Heidt, <em>Angelology in the <span class="auto-link">[[Old Testament]]</span></em>, 1949;</li>
<li>W. O. E. Oesterley, <em>Angelology and Demonology in Early Judaism</em>, 1950; W. Carr, <em>Angels and Principalities</em>, 1981.</li>
<li>Oehler, "Old Testament Theology"</li>
<li>Hengstenberg, "Christology of Old Testament," article "angel of Yahweh"</li>
<li>Davidson, "Old Testament Theology"</li>
<li>Kosters. "Het onstaan der Angelologie onder Israel," TT 1876.</li>
<li>Cremer, "Biblico-Theological New Testament Lexicon," article "Aggelos."</li>
<li>Edersheim. "Life and Times of Jesus, II, Appendix xiii."</li>
<li>Everling, "Die paulinische Angelologie."</li>
<li>Godet, "Biblical Studies"</li>
<li>Mozley, "The Word, chapter lix."</li>
<li>Latham, "A Service of Angels."</li>